History of muhammad of islam

Historical study of high-mindedness Islamic prophet

The historicity of Muhammad refers to the study help Muhammad as a historical relationship and critical examination of holdings upon which traditional accounts (the Quran, sīrah, hadith especially) pronounce based.

The majority of classic scholars believe Muhammad existed type a historical figure.^[1] The primeval Muslim source of information provision the life of Muhammad, goodness Quran, gives very little lonely information and its historicity enquiry debated.^[2]Prophetic biography, known as sīra, along with attributed records look up to the words, actions, and primacy silent approval of Muhammad, celebrated as hadith, survive in integrity historical works of writers unearth the second and third centuries of the Muslim era (c.&#;− CE),^[5] and give a cumulative deal of information on Muhammad, but the reliability of that information is very much debated in some academic circles. Cover addition there are a rather small number of contemporaneous conquer near-contemporaneous non-Muslim sources which bear witness to to the existence of Muhammad and are valuable both pop into themselves and for comparison added Muslim sources.

Despite any difficulties come to get the biographical sources, scholars commonly see valuable historical information enquiry Muhammad therein and suggest turn this way what is needed are approachs to be able to congregate out the likely from class unlikely.^[6] However, in practice overriding what elements of early narratives about Muhammad's life are propose to be true and which are not is extremely difficult.^[7]

Islamic sources

The main Islamic source aversion Muhammad's life are the Quran and accounts of Muhammad's sure based on oral traditions read out as sīra and hadith.

Quran

See also: History of the Quran and Criticism of the Quran

Islamic narrative

According to traditional Islamic knowledge, all of the Quran was written down by Muhammad's cortege while he was alive (during CE –^[8]), but it was primarily an orally related report. Following the death of Muhammad the Quran ceased to print revealed, and companions who difficult memorized the Quran began generate die off (particularly after rectitude Battle of Yamama in ).^[9] Worried that parts of goodness Quran might be irretrievably missing, senior companion Umar urged Muslim Abu Bakr to order representation collection of the pieces take away the Quran which had thus far been scattered among "palm-leaf stalks, thin white stones, [and] private soldiers who knew it by nonstop, "^[10] and put them together.^[9][11] Under Caliph Uthman, a commission of five copied the waste into a single volume, "monitoring the text as they went", resolving disagreements about verses, pathway down a lost verse.^[12] That muṣḥaf – that became celebrated as the "Uthmanic codex" – was finished around CE,^[13][14] whereupon Uthman issued an order portend all other existing personal perch individual copies and dialects director the Quran (known as Ahruf) to be burnt.^[15][16]

Modern scholarship fraud Muhammad

Modern scholars differ in their assessment of the Quran type a historical source about Muhammad's life.

According to the Encyclopedia of Islam, the "Qur'an responds constantly and often candidly profit Muhammad's changing historical circumstances build up contains a wealth of cryptic data that are relevant take on the task of the exploration for the historical Muhammad."^[2]

In distinguish, Solomon A. Nigosian writes stray the Quran tells us publication little about the life substantiation Muhammad. Unlike the Bible's narratives of the life of Prophet or Jesus, Michael Cook keep information that

while the Koran tells many stories after its the fad, that of Muhammad is remote among them. There are references to events in his lifetime, but they are only references, not narratives. In addition, distinction book is not given come to mentioning names in the condition of its own time. Muhammad himself is named four age, and a couple of sovereignty contemporaries once each and progress to this reason it is nearly impossible to relate the scriptures to his life without adieu outside it.^[19]

Modern scholarship on honesty Quran

As to the historicity remove the Quran itself, some scholars also disagree. Some argue "the Quran is convincingly the dustup of Muhammad" (F.E. Peters),^[20] implements the parchment of an awkward copy of Quran – leadership Birmingham manuscript, whose text differs only slightly to modern versions – being dated to indecently around the lifetime of Muhammad.^[21] Some Western scholars,^[22] however, concentrating the accuracy of some weekend away the Quran's historical accounts sports ground whether the holy book existed in any form before significance last decade of the ordinal century (Patricia Crone and Archangel Cook);^[23] and/or argue it appreciation a "cocktail of texts", manifold of which may have archaic existent a hundred years hitherto Muhammad, that evolved (Gerd Concentration. Puin),^[23][24][25] or was redacted (J. Wansbrough),^[26][27] to form the Quran.

Traditions

Unlike the Quran, the sunna and sīra are devoted journey Muhammad, his life, his text, deeds, approval, and example get to Muslims in general.

Prophetic life (sīra)

Main article: Prophetic biography §&#;Authenticity and usefulness

Much is believed pick up be known about Muhammad evacuate Sira literature:

The life disseminate Muhammad is known as interpretation Sira and was lived change into the full light of characteristics. Everything he did and vocal was recorded. Because he could not read and write individual, he was constantly served shy a group of 45 scribes who wrote down his traditional wisdom, instructions, and his activities. Muhammad himself insisted on documenting her majesty important decisions. Nearly three issue of his documents have take on down to us, including state treaties, military enlistments, assignments recompense officials, and state correspondence predetermined on tanned leather. We as follows know his life to nobility minutest details: how he support, sat, slept (sic), dressed, walked; his behavior as a deposit, father, nephew; his attitudes deal with women, children, animals; his vocation transactions and stance toward prestige poor and the oppressed ^[28][29][30]

In the sīra literature, the maximum important extant biography are rendering two recensions of Ibn Ishaq's (d. ), now known monkey Sīrat Rasūl Allah ("Biography/Life pay the bill the Messenger/Apostle of Allah"), which survive in the works misplace his editors, most notably Ibn Hisham (d. ) and Yunus b. Bukayr (d–), although whine in its original form.^[2] According to Ibn Hisham, Ibn Ishaq wrote his biography some keep years after Muhammad's death. Multitudinous, but not all, scholars appropriate the accuracy of these biographies, though their accuracy is unascertainable.

After Ibn Ishaq, there are boss number of shorter accounts (some of which are earlier elude Ibn Ishaq) recorded in conspicuous forms (see List of primeval writers of sīra). Other biographies of Muhammad include al-Waqidi's (d. ) and then Ibn Sa'd's (d–45). Al-Waqidi is often criticized by early Muslim historians who state that the author level-headed unreliable.^[2] These are not "biographies" in the modern sense chivalrous the word, but rather economics of Muhammad's military expeditions, rulership sayings, the reasons for prosperous interpretations of verses in high-mindedness Quran.^[2]

Criticism of sīra

Secular historians fake been much more critical commemorate Sira. (see also "Modern scholarship" below)

Tom Holland notes digress Ibn Hisham credits angels do business helping Muslims to victory be redolent of the Battle of Badr, careful wonders why he should ability considered a reliable historical origin any more than Homer (who portrayed gods as influencing battles in his epic poem goodness Iliad).^[31]

Henri Lammens complains of contradictions in the Traditions about Muhammad's life, including on the digit of his children and wives. Some accounts have him getting one child, others two, splendid still another claimed he esoteric twelve children, including eight boys.^{[32][Note 1]} While most accounts indict he had nine wives, "some passages of the sira divulge of twenty three wives."^[32] Muhammad is thought to have fleeting between 60 and 65 age according to tradition.^[35]

According to Holdup Raven, it is often respected that a coherent image not later than Muhammad cannot be formed distance from the literature of sīra, whose authenticity and factual value maintain been questioned on a publication of different grounds.^[36] He lists the following arguments against interpretation authenticity of sīra, followed nigh by counter-arguments:

1. Hardly any sīra work was compiled during distinction first century of Islam. Fred Donner points out that righteousness earliest historical writings about glory origins of Islam first emerged in AH, well within authority first century of Hijra (see also List of biographies forfeiture Muhammad). Furthermore, the sources immediately extant, dating from the straightaway any more, third, and fourth centuries AH, are according to Donner first and foremost compilations of material derived breakout earlier sources.
2. The many discrepancies pretended in different narrations found have as a feature sīra works. Yet, despite goodness lack of a single authenticity in Islam, there is come to light a marked agreement on honourableness most general features of rendering traditional origins story.
3. Later sources claiming to know more about blue blood the gentry time of Muhammad than heretofore ones (to add embellishments increase in intensity exaggeration common to an vocal storytelling tradition).^[40]
4. Discrepancies compared to non-Muslim sources. But there are along with similarities and agreements both name information specific to Muhammad,^[41] take concerning Muslim tradition at large.^[42]
5. Some parts or genres of sīra, namely those dealing with miracles, are not fit as store for scientific historiographical information attack Muhammad, except for showing significance beliefs and doctrines of rule community.

Nevertheless, other content of sīra, like the Constitution of Metropolis, are generally considered to lay at somebody's door authentic by both Muslim coupled with non-Muslim historians.^[36]

Hadith

Main articles: Hadith lecture Criticism of hadith

The hadith collections include traditional, hagiographic accounts magnetize verbal and physical traditions attributed to Muhammad, and for uncountable, often explain what a lapse in the Quran is referring to in regards to Muhammad.^[43] Unlike the Quran, hadiths stature not universally accepted by Muslims.^[44][45][46]

Early Muslim scholars were concerned walk some hadiths (and sīra reports) were fabricated, and thus they developed a science of tradition criticism (see Hadith studies) tackle distinguish between genuine sayings come to rest those that were forged, record using different words, or were wrongly ascribed to Muhammad.

In general, the majority of colourfulness academics view the hadith collections with considerable caution.^[47]Bernard Lewis states that "The collection and stick of Hadith did not grab place until several generations back the death of the Prophetess. During that period the opportunities and motives for falsification were almost unlimited." In addition appendix fabrication, the meaning of swell hadith may have substantially drifted from its original telling gross the time it was cursive down.^[7]

The main feature of sunnah is that of Isnad (chains of transmission), which are justness basis of determining the believability of the reports in routine Islamic scholarship. According to Writer Humphreys, while a number celebrate "very capable" modern scholars defended the general authenticity of isnads, most modern scholars regard isnads with "deep suspicion",^[49] due give somebody no option but to the potential for isnads, 1 hadith, to be fabricated.^[47]

Jonathan First-class. C. Brown, a Sunni Islamic American scholar of Islamic studies who follows the Hanbali academy of jurisprudence,^[50] asserts that prestige hadith tradition is a "common sense science" or a "common sense tradition" and is "one of the biggest accomplishments doubtful human intellectual history in sheltered breadth, in its depth, worry its complexity and in spoil internal consistency."^[51]

Non-Muslim sources

Early Islamic record is also reflected in multiplicity written in Greek, Syriac, Asiatic, and Hebrew by Jewish endure Christian communities, all of which are dated after CE. These sources contain some essential differences with regard to Muslim profusion, in particular regarding the almanac and Muhammad's attitude towards interpretation Jews and Palestine. According kind Nevo and Koren, no Multi-use building or Syriac sources provide woman on the clapham omnibus detail on "Muhammad's early duration which predate the Muslim creative writings on the subject".^[52]

According to Syriac and Byzantine sources studied moisten historian S.P. Brock,^[53] "The headline 'prophet' [applied to Muhammad] equitable not very common, 'apostle' collected less so. Normally he level-headed simply described as the pull it off of the Arab kings, pivotal it would be generally deduction to say that the Syriac sources of this period sway the conquests primarily as Semite, and not Muslim".^[54][55]

There is capital reference recording the Arab triumph of Syria (known as Piece on the Arab Conquests), make certain mentions Muhammad. This very flat note is preserved on leaf 1 of BL Add. 14,, a codex containing the The last word according to Matthew and loftiness Gospel according to Mark. That note appears to have antiquated penned soon after the hostility of Gabitha ( CE) watch over which the Arabs effected clever crushing defeat of the Byzantines. Wright was first to derive the attention to the shaving and suggested that "it seems to be a nearly contemporaneous notice",^[56] a view which was also endorsed by Nöldeke.^[57] Nobleness purpose of jotting this signal your intention in the book of Koran appears to be commemorative pass for the author appears to enjoy realized how momentous the goings-on of his time were. Distinction words "we saw" are unequivocal evidence that the author was a contemporary. The author further talks about olive oil, cows, ruined villages, suggesting that sharp-tasting belonged to peasant stock, 1 parish priest or a monastic who could read and get on. It is worthwhile cautioning saunter the condition of the subject is fragmentary and many be in possession of the readings unclear or put forward. The lacunae (gaps in rank text) are supplied in foursided brackets:

… and in Jan, they took the word yen for their lives (did) [the report of] Emesa [i.e., ̣Hiṃs)], most recent many villages were ruined comprise killing by [the Arabs of] Muḥammad and a great enumerate of people were killed allow captives [were taken] from Porch as far as Bēth [] and those Arabs pitched artificial beside [Damascus?] [] and awe saw everywhe[re] and o[l]ive zit which they brought and them. And on the t[wenty six]th of May went S[ac[ella]rius] stock [] [] from the quarter of Emesa and the Book chased them [] and comprehension the tenth [of August] honesty Romans fled from the precincts of Damascus [] many [people] some 10, And at say publicly turn [of the ye]ar decency Romans came; and on say publicly twentieth of August in description year n[ine hundred and forty-]seven there gathered in Gabitha [] the Romans and great go to regularly people were ki[lled of] [the R]omans, [s]ome fifty thousand []^[58][59]

The 7th-century Chronicle of was published by Wright who leading brought to attention the refer to of an early date a variety of AG (–36 CE).^[60] The listing of this manuscript has doubtful many scholars for their expansion lack of coherence as site contains an assembly of texts with diverse nature.^[61][62] In tie to Arabs of Mohammed, close to are two important dates silhouette in this manuscript.

AG , indiction VII: On Friday, 4 February, [i.e., CE / Dhul Qa'dah 12 AH] at class ninth hour, there was marvellous battle between the Romans folk tale the Arabs of Maḥmet [Syr. tayyāyē d-MḤMT] in Palestine cardinal miles east of Gaza. Glory Romans fled, leaving behind glory patrician Jordan (Syr. BRYRDN), whom the Arabs killed. Some 40, [according to the original print run, but the more recent Sincerely translation reads "" without comment] poor villagers of Palestine were killed there, Christians, Jews gain Samaritans. The Arabs ravaged illustriousness whole region.

—&#;^[63]

AG , indiction IX: The Arabs invaded the uncut of Syria and went dejected to Persia and conquered it; the Arabs climbed mountain unravel Mardin and killed many monks there in [the monasteries of] Qedar and Bnata (Benōthō).^[64] Presentday died the blessed man Apostle, doorkeeper of Qedar, brother unbutton Thomas the priest.^[65][66]

It is decency first date above which court case of great importance as gladden provides the first explicit mention to Muhammad in a non-Muslim source. The account is most often identified with the battle scrupulous Dathin.^[67][68] According to Hoyland, "its precise dating inspires confidence guarantee it ultimately derives from first-hand knowledge".^[69]

Another account of the beforehand seventh century comes from Sebeos who was an Armenian churchwoman of the House of Bagratuni. His account indicates he was writing at a time like that which memories of sudden eruption cataclysm the Arabs were fresh. Agreed knows Muhammad's name, that lighten up was a merchant by business, and hints that his poised was suddenly changed by smart divinely inspired revelation.^[70] Sebeos go over the main points the first non-Muslim author get tangled present a theory for description rise of Islam that pays attention to what the Muslims themselves thought they were doing.^[71]

At that time a certain guy from along those same analysis of Ismael, whose name was Mahmet [i.e., Muḥammad], a craftsman, as if by God's right lane appeared to them as undiluted preacher [and] the path disbursement truth. He taught them figure out recognize the God of Patriarch, especially because he was tolerate and informed in the story of Moses. Now because nobleness command was from on pump up session, at a single order they all came together in unanimity of religion. Abandoning their proud cults, they turned to illustriousness living God who had comed to their father Abraham. And, Mahmet legislated for them: beg for to eat carrion, not telling off drink wine, not to disclose falsely, and not to presume in fornication. He said: 'With an oath God promised that land to Abraham and monarch seed after him for quickthinking. And he brought about orangutan he promised during that purpose while he loved Israel. On the contrary now you are the report of Abraham and God survey accomplishing his promise to Patriarch and his seed for complete. Love sincerely only the Maker of Abraham, and go abide seize the land which Spirit gave to your father Patriarch. No one will be required to resist you in campaigning, because God is with you.^[72]

From this chronicle, there are indications that he lived through distinct of the events he relates. He maintains that the dispense with of Arab conquests derives free yourself of the fugitives who had back number eyewitnesses thereof. He concludes occur Mu'awiya's ascendancy in the Semite civil war (– CE), which suggests that he was scribble soon after this date.

Modern scholarship

Though the Quran contains lightly cooked and rudimentary details of class prophet's life, most of greatness biographical information about Muhammad be obtainables from the sirah (biographical literature), especially the work of Ibn Ishaq (d. ).^[73] These variety normally provide a historical line of names that lead, fall apart some cases, to an onlooker and sometimes converge with additional earlier sources near the put on the back burner of the prophet.^[73] Though "there is no compelling reason appoint suggest that the basic state of the traditional Islamic record of Muhammad's life is historical", a much more detailed account is difficult to be arranged as historically certain knowledge.^[73] According to Wim Raven, attempts memorandum distinguish between the historical dash and the unhistorical elements counterfeit many of the reports show Muhammad have been problematic.^[74] According to F. E. Peters, contempt any difficulties with the use sources, scholars generally see substantial historical information about Muhammad therein and suggest that what survey needed are methods to break down able to sort out picture likely from the unlikely.^[6]

In rendering s the Revisionist School dying Islamic Studies raised fundamental doubts about the reliability of oral Islamic sources and applied grandeur historical-critical methods to the indeed Islamic period, including the straightforwardness of the conventional account robust Muhammad. A major source jump at difficulty in the quest use the historical Muhammad is magnanimity modern lack of knowledge attack pre-Islamic Arabia.^[20] According to Harald Motzki, "On the one assistance, it is not possible enter upon write a historical biography spectacle the Prophet without being offender of using the sources uncritically, while on the other help out, when using the sources harshly, it is simply not imaginable to write such a biography."

In French Arabist Régis Blachère, author of a critical life of Muhammad that took "fully into account the skeptical conclusions" of Ignác Goldziher and Henri Lammens, i.e. that Islamic tradition had been corrupted and could not be considered reliable cornucopia of information, wrote

We thumb longer have any sources renounce would allow us to draw up a detailed history of Muhammad with a rigorous and undisturbed chronology. To resign oneself foul a partial or total unenlightenment is necessary, above all desire everything that concerns the date prior to Muhammad's divine call upon [ca. CE]. All a de facto scientific biography can achieve legal action to lay out the consecutive problems engendered by this preapostolate period, sketch out the popular background atmosphere in which Muhammad received his divine call, scan in broad brush strokes magnanimity development of his apostleship take up Mecca, try with a in a superior way chance of success to situate in order the known keep a note, and finally put back prick the penumbra all that remainder uncertain. To want to lighten up further is to fall behaviour hagiography or romanticization.^[75]

Historian Bog Burton states

In judging goodness content, the only resort reproach the scholar is to high-mindedness yardstick of probability, and pleasurable this basis, it must just repeated, virtually nothing of taken to the historian emerges munch through the sparse record of class early life of the pioneer of the latest of decency great world religions so, but far back in the Islamist tradition one now attempts give an inkling of reach, one simply cannot regain a scrap of information splash real use in constructing birth human history of Muhammad, onwards the bare fact that operate once existed.^[76]

Michael Cook laments give it some thought comparing Ibn Ishaq with picture later commentator Al-Waqid—who based enthrone writing on Ibn Ishaq on the other hand added much colorful but concocted detail—reveals how oral history throng together be contaminated by the narration of storytellers (qussa).^[77] "We fake seen what half a c of story-telling could achieve mid Ibn Ishaq and al-Waqidi, contempt a time when we recollect that much material had by then been committed to writing. What the same processes may receive brought about in the 100 before Ibn Ishaq is site we can only guess at."^[78]

Overall, Cook takes the view put off evidence independent of Islamic customs "precludes any doubts as break into whether Muhammad was a true person" and clearly shows go wool-gathering he became the central assess of a new religion compromise the decades following his sort-out. He reports, though, that that evidence conflicts with the Islamic view in some aspects, alliance Muhammad with Israel rather facing Inner Arabia, complicating the methodically of his sole authorship sort out transmission of the Quran, nearby suggesting that there were Jews as well as Arabs in the middle of his followers.^[79]

Cook's fellow revisionistPatricia Occultist complains that Sīrat is in the cards "not by a grandchild, however a great grandchild of birth Prophet's generation", that it task written from the point atlas view of the ulama bid Abbasid, so that "we shall never know how the Dynasty caliphs remembered their prophet".^[80]

While Beldam argues that Muhammad was dialect trig person whose existence is trim by various sources, she takes a view that Muhammad's standard association with the Arabian Ness may be "doctrinally inspired", beam is put in doubt antisocial the Quran itself, which describes agricultural activity that could whine have taken place there, by reason of well as making a allusion to the site of Metropolis which appears to place Muhammad's community close to the Departed Sea.^[81]

Concerning the dates of Muhammad's life, Lawrence Conrad writes go off at a tangent "well into the second hundred A.H. [Islamic] scholarly opinion rear-ender the birth date of greatness Prophet displayed a range a variety of variance of 85 years. Thing the assumption that chronology abridge crucial to the stabilization make out any tradition of historical novel, whether transmitted orally or nervous tension writing, one can see uphold this state of affairs dinky clear indication that sīra studies in the second century were still in a state recall flux".^[38] Since second century A.H. scholarly opinion is the first scholarly opinion, and assuming nobility closer scholars were to probity actual event the more improbable their sources are to note down accurate, this suggests a undreamed of lack of information among Islamic scholars about basic information charlatan Muhammad.^[82]

Robert Hoyland suggests his verifiable importance may have been hyperbolic by his followers, writing divagate "other" Arab leaders "in agitate locations" had preceded Muhammad come to terms with attacking the weakened Byzantine cranium Persian empires, but these difficult to understand been "airbrushed out of story by later Muslim writers". Hoyland and other historians argue consider it the original Arab invaders were not all Muslims.^[83]

Other views

Some historians have posited the belief focus Muhammad may be mythical. Condemn their book Crossroads to Islam, Yehuda D. Nevo and Heroine Koren advanced a thesis, supported on an extensive examination reminisce archaeological evidence from the Desert desert from the Early Islamic period, that Muhammad may not at any time have existed, with monotheistic Monotheism only coming into existence trying time after he is putative to have lived. This has been described as "plausible check on at least arguable" by King Cook of Rice University, on the contrary also compared to Holocaust disaffirmation by historian Colin Wells, who suggests that the authors assembly with some of the attempt illogically.^[84]

In , Karl-Heinz Ohlig elective that the person of Muhammed was not central to ill-timed Islam at all, and avoid at this very early situation Islam was in fact stop off Arabic Christian sect which difficult to understand objections to the concept sketch out the trinity, and that prestige later hadith and biographies utter in large part legends, helping in severing Islam from disloyalty Christian roots and building a-ok full-blown new religion.^[85] In , Sven Kalisch, a former Islamist convert and Germany's first academic of Islamic theology, also moot whether the prophet Muhammad existed.^[86] In , Hans Jansen, excellent Dutch scholar, expressed similar views.^[87]

See also

Notes

Citations

References

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